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ABSTRACT OBJECTIVES The study aimed to assess consumption of selected food products by adults with a range of body mass before and during the outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic as well as

identify factors impacting the consumption of selected foods. METHODS The study was conducted in a group of 690 subjects during the most severe lockdown due to Covid-19 in Poland (\(\bar x\)

 = 23 years of age). The dietary assessment was carried out by means of an online survey based on the Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ-6). The respondents were asked to provide two answers

to each question, one covering a 7-day period before the lockdown and one related to a 7-day period during the lockdown. RESULTS During lockdown in the study group there was increase in

consumption of sweets and snacks (_p_ = 0.010), grain products (_p_ = 0.050), fat (_p_ = 0.007) as well as alcohol (_p_ < 0.001). During the lockdown respondents with normal BMI increased

consumption of sweets and snacks (_p_ = 0.011), dairy products and eggs (_p_ = 0.034), grain products (_p_ = 0.029) and alcohol (_p_ = 0.00). The group of overweight respondents was found

to consume significantly more alcohol (_p_ = 0.022), while those with obesity tended to consume more meat (_p_ = 0.002), fish (_p_ < 0.001) and lower amounts of dairy products (_p_ = 

0.003). The factors which affected intake of selected food products include age, smoking, place of residence, obesity and education. CONCLUSIONS Covid-19 pandemic is significantly related to

the change in the frequency of intake of selected products by all adults, irrespective of their BMI. The adverse changes were particularly observed in respondents with overweight and

obesity. SIMILAR CONTENT BEING VIEWED BY OTHERS ENERGY INTAKE AND ENERGY CONTRIBUTIONS OF MACRONUTRIENTS AND MAJOR FOOD SOURCES AMONG CHINESE ADULTS: CHNS 2015 AND CNTCS 2015 Article 28 July

2020 ENERGY AND MACRONUTRIENT INTAKES IN JORDAN: A POPULATION STUDY Article Open access 05 August 2023 ULTRA-PROCESSED FOOD CONSUMPTION AND OBESITY IN THE AUSTRALIAN ADULT POPULATION

Article Open access 05 December 2020 INTRODUCTION Obesity is a chronic condition, recognised among risk factors for numerous chronic diseases impacting people’s quality of life. These mainly

include cancer, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, osteoarthritis and stroke [1, 2]. The related preventive activities are adversely affected by the ongoing pandemic of the coronavirus

disease. Furthermore, recent studies have shown that infection with the coronavirus produces more severe effects in individuals with excessive body mass, compared to those with normal body

mass, and the former seem to face a greater risk of the disease and hospitalisation [3, 4]. Obesity is also a major risk factor for mortality due to COVID-19, since it is associated with

impaired immune function [5,6,7]. In this context, importance of health-oriented measures enabling body weight control is particularly emphasised. Moreover, in the course of the pandemic,

peoples’ behaviours including their eating habits, have been significantly affected due to restrictions and limited physical activity resulting from social distancing, self-isolation, long

periods spent at home, and remote rather than traditional mode of work [8, 9]. Those confined to their homes for a long time more frequently feel bored [10], immobilised and anxious [11].

These emotions are linked with a risk of increased intake of unhealthy foods and drinks, including highly-processed fatty foods, sweets and alcohol [12]. During the pandemic people tend to

consume unhealthy foods in greater quantities, which is reflected by a growing body of evidence. Few studies, however, have assessed nutritional behaviours in relation to the subjects’

current body weight [13,14,15]. We still do not clearly know which body weight group presents the most significant changes in eating habits and what trends are reflected by these changes.

The study aimed to assess consumption of selected food products by adults with a range of body mass before and during the outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic as well as identify factors

impacting the consumption of selected foods. MATERIALS AND METHODS SUBJECTS Designed as a retrospective pre-post survey, the study was carried out online from 24 March 2020 until 11 April

2020 (period of 19 days) during the first lockdown announced in Poland, and imposing the most severe restrictions. The participants provided two answers to each question, one covering a

7-day period before the lockdown and one related to a 7-day period during the lockdown. Data published by the Statistical Office confirm that 2,115,578 adults over the age of 18 live in

south-eastern Poland. Assuming a 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error, the required sample size should be at least 384 participants. From among the questionnaires sent, 690

respondents were qualified for evaluation on the basis of the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The survey questions were related to the frequency with which the respondents consumed

selected food products and additionally they covered personal information, including body weight. Participation in the study was voluntary and anonymous. At the start of the online survey

the respondents learned about the study and provided informed consent to participate. Inclusion criteria: residence in Poland, absence of chronic diseases and other conditions that may

influence the results of the study, age of study >18 years. Exclusion criteria: no consent to the study, medication that may have caused obesity, age under 18. The study and the method of

obtaining informed consent were approved by the Local Bioethics Commission (ref. No. 2/02/2019). ANTHROPOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS FOOD FREQUENCY QUESTIONNAIRE (FFQ-6) The research instrument is

designed to assess the frequency of consumption of selected food products: sweets and snacks; dairy products and eggs; grain products; fats; fruits; vegetables; meats; fish; sweetened

beverages; sugar-free beverages and alcohol. Frequency of product consumption was assessed using a five-point scale: (1) never or almost never, (2) 1–3 days/week, (3) more than 3 days/week,

(4) once a day, (5) several times a day [16]. BODY MASS INDEX Body mass index was calculated based on body height and mass measurements. BMI values were analysed by reference to the World

Health Organization classification of obesity: BMI _<_ 18.5 underweight, 18.5–24.99 normal weight, 25–29.99 overweight, ≥30 obesity [17]. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Differences between the

independent variables were assessed using Mann–Whitney test or Kruskal–Wallis test. Dependent variables were examined using Wilcoxon signed-rank test. Non-parametric tests have been used to

compensate for large standard deviations (Wilcoxon and Kruskal–Wallis). The non-parametric methods were applied due to the lack of normal distributions of the variables, examined using

Kolmogorov–Smirnov test and the non-fulfilment of the conditions of homogeneity of variance (Levene’s test). Additionally, stepwise logistic regression was applied to identify variables

significantly related to consumption of the products. The following predictors were defined: sex, age, BMI category, place of residence, education, smoking. Significance level was assumed in

the analyses for _p_ < 0.05. The calculations were computed using Statistica 13.1 software. RESULTS The study group comprised 470 (68.1%) females and 220 (31.9%) males, with mean age of

23 years. Majority of the subjects reported normal body weight (434 respondents; 62.9%); overweight was identified in 167 respondents (24.2%), obesity in 59 (8.6%), and underweight in 30

respondents (4.3%). Higher education was reported by a majority, i.e., 342 respondents (49.6%), secondary education by 324 respondent (47%) and vocational education by 24 respondents (3.5%)

(Table 1). The findings show that during lockdown there was increase in consumption of sweets and snacks (_p_ = 0.010), grain products (_p_ = 0.050), fats (_p_ = 0.007) and alcohol (_p_ <

 0.001) (Table 2). Compared to women, male respondents reported more frequent intake of meat products (3.16 points), fish (1.90 points), sweetened beverages (1.99 points) as well as alcohol

(1.87 points). Consumption of sweets and snacks was higher in respondents below 25 years of age and it decreased with age. Similar relationship was identified with regard to consumption of

dairy products and eggs, sweetened beverages as well as alcohol (Table 2). Analysis of the specific groups representing the varied body mass categories showed that during lockdown those with

normal body weight and those with underweight increased intake of dairy products (3.62 versus 3.73). The adults with overweight increased consumption of fish (1.95). The respondents with

obesity increased consumption of meat products (3.34) and fish (1.95). A similar trend was identified in this group with regard to the eating habits before the pandemic, as these respondents

far more frequently consumed meat products (3.25) and fish (2.05). The data are shown in Table 3. Comparative analyses of the changes in food intake relative of body mass category showed

that during the pandemic respondents with normal BMI significantly increased consumption of sweets and snacks, dairy products and eggs, grain products as well as alcohol. The group of

respondents with low BMI was found to significantly increase consumption of fats during the pandemic (from 3.13 to 3.43 points). In the group of overweight respondents, the only significant

increase was found in frequency of alcohol consumption, while the respondents with obesity were found to decrease consumption of dairy products (from 3.46 points to 3.19 points) (Table 4).

Results of stepwise logistic regression showed that during the pandemic younger respondents were more frequently drawn to sweets and snacks (_B_ < 0). Dairy products were less attractive

for smoking respondents (OR = 0.65). Fats were more frequently consumed by respondents from rural areas (OR = 0.68). During the pandemic meat products were more frequently consumed by

respondents with obesity (OR = 1.93), and less frequently by underweight (OR = 0.48) and overweight respondents (OR = 0.94). Sweetened beverages were more attractive for respondents with

vocational/secondary education (OR = 0.66) and for smokers (OR = 1.73). The latter were also more frequently drawn to sugar-free beverages (OR = 1.50). Alcohol was less frequently consumed

by younger respondents (OR = 0.97) and more frequently by those with higher education (OR = 1.49) (Table 5). DISCUSSION The difficult period of the pandemic, including the stringent

lockdown, resulted in a change of the respondents’ eating habits reflected by consumption of various food products [18,19,20,21]. Referring to our own study, there was mainly a significant

increase in consumption of sweets, grain products, fats and alcohol which reflects decrease in the quality of the diet followed by adults during the pandemic. The current findings are

largely consistent with those reported by other researchers. Błaszczyk-Bębenek et al. observed that during the lockdown the food products which are more frequently consumed include eggs,

potatoes, sweets, canned meat and alcohol [22]. Similarly, Cheikh Ismail et al. carried out a study involving 1012 subjects and reported that during the lockdown the participants’ eating

habits differed from the Mediterranean dietary model and were closer to unhealthy eating patterns [23]. According to Ammar et al., consumption of unhealthy food products was higher during

home confinement, and increased from 18.4 to 23.3% [9]. Likewise, Bogataj Jontez et al. observed adverse effect of the lockdown on the quality of diet, with a decrease in the healthy eating

index from 64.59 to 61.08 [24, 25]. The related findings are similar worldwide. It can be anticipated that the unhealthy eating habits observed during COVID-19 pandemic may exacerbate the

problem of overweight and obesity which has been scrutinised by specialists worldwide for years [24, 26,27,28]. Furthermore, it is particularly difficult to counteract this phenomenon during

COVID-19 pandemic and because of this the problem should be treated even more seriously now, and efforts should be taken to prevent excessive body weight gain during lockdown. According to

Pellegrini et al. during the lockdown the subjects’ body weight on average increased by 1.5 kilogram, and a tendency to eat more frequently, and to consume more unhealthy snacks and sweets

than before the pandemic, was correlated to a higher body weight gain [29]. The negative changes in nutritional habits may be linked to a tendency to eat in response to stress, boredom, and

prolonged confinement at home as well as decreased motivation to exercise. This reflects the complexity of the problem [30,31,32]. The study shows that changes in the frequency of food

intake were observed in the entire study group, irrespective of the subjects’ BMI, including the individuals with normal body weight who tended to increase consumption of sweets, snacks,

dairy products, eggs, grain products and alcohol. The findings show that the only significant increase in the group of overweight individuals was related to consumption of alcohol, which is

an important problem. The largest change in consumption of alcohol was also identified in male respondents and in subjects with higher education. Similarly, Knell et al. showed that during

the pandemic subjects aged 35–49 years as well as those 50+, university graduates, and individuals with overweight or obesity were less likely to reduce alcohol consumption [33]. Ferrante et

al. reported higher consumption of alcohol in 17% of the subjects during the pandemic, and the trend was most visible in male subjects and those with higher education, which is consistent

with the current findings [34]. The most negative changes were observed in respondents with obesity who reported decreased consumption of dairy products, vegetables, grain products and

increased intake of meat and fish. Individuals with obesity are particularly vulnerable to adverse effects of the pandemic and various related factors possibly aggravating their existing

health problems; they are also highly susceptible to the coronavirus disease and face a risk of more severe symptoms and complications [35]. Sidor and Rzymski showed that during the pandemic

individuals with obesity were particularly likely to decrease intake of vegetables, fruit and legumes, and to increase consumption of fast food, meat and unhealthy snacks. However, more

frequent snacking behaviours were presented by all the subjects, irrespective of their BMI [36, 37]. Coulthard et al. also highlight the differences in food intake during the pandemic in

individuals with various BMI where a higher BMI was associated with higher emotional eating during the lockdown [38]. Furthermore, according to Almandoz, increased stockpiling of food was

reported by nearly one in two respondents, and stress eating was acknowledged by ~62% of the study participants [39]. Individuals with higher BMI more frequently report negative changes in

eating behaviours and physical activity, as well as barriers to body weight control, including lack of motivation and poorer control of eating behaviours [40]. CONCLUSIONS The existing

pandemic, and most of all the strict lockdowns, are very strong factors which have resulted in a deterioration of adults’ eating habits and diet quality. During lockdown the subjects tended

to more frequently consume sweets, unhealthy snacks, grain products and alcohol. During the pandemic consumption of dairy products and eggs as well as alcohol were higher in adults with

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2021;156:104853. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2020.104853. Article  PubMed  Google Scholar  Download references ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to thank all the respondents for their

consent to take part in the study in this difficult time of COVID-19 pandemic. AUTHOR INFORMATION AUTHORS AND AFFILIATIONS * Institute of Health Sciences, Medical College, University of

Rzeszów, al. Rejtana 16 C, 35-959, Rzeszów, Poland Justyna Leszczak, Ewelina Czenczek-Lewandowska, Justyna Wyszyńska, Aneta Weres & Joanna Baran * Natural and Medical Center for

Innovative Research, ul. Litawora 2, 35-310, Rzeszów, Poland Justyna Leszczak, Ewelina Czenczek-Lewandowska, Justyna Wyszyńska, Aneta Weres, Bogumił Lewandowski & Joanna Baran *

Institute of Medicine, Medical College, University of Rzeszow, al. Rejtana 16 C, 35-959, Rzeszow, Poland Bogumił Lewandowski Authors * Justyna Leszczak View author publications You can also

search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar * Ewelina Czenczek-Lewandowska View author publications You can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar * Justyna Wyszyńska View

author publications You can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar * Aneta Weres View author publications You can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar * Bogumił

Lewandowski View author publications You can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar * Joanna Baran View author publications You can also search for this author inPubMed Google

Scholar CONTRIBUTIONS JL and ECL were responsible for designing the review protocol, writing the protocol and report, conducting the search, screening potentially eligible studies,

extracting and analysing data, interpreting results, updating reference lists and creating ‘Summary of findings’ tables, approved the final version. JB and JW were responsible for designing

the review protocol and screening potentially eligible studies. They contributed to writing the report, extracting and analysing data, interpreting results and creating ‘Summary of findings’

tables, approved the final version. AW and BL conducted the meta-regression analyses and contributed to the design of the review protocol, writing the report, arbitrating potentially

eligible studies, extracting and analysing data and interpreting results, approved the final version. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR Correspondence to Justyna Leszczak. ETHICS DECLARATIONS COMPETING

INTERESTS The authors declare no competing interests. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION PUBLISHER’S NOTE Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and

institutional affiliations. RIGHTS AND PERMISSIONS Reprints and permissions ABOUT THIS ARTICLE CITE THIS ARTICLE Leszczak, J., Czenczek-Lewandowska, E., Wyszyńska, J. _et al._ Consumption of

selected food products by adults representing various body mass categories, during Covid-19 lockdown in Poland. _Eur J Clin Nutr_ 76, 1186–1192 (2022).

https://doi.org/10.1038/s41430-022-01089-3 Download citation * Received: 02 June 2021 * Revised: 18 January 2022 * Accepted: 24 January 2022 * Published: 22 February 2022 * Issue Date:

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