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This article reports on a systematic review of the literature on dehydration in older hospital patients and care home residents, and makes recommendations for improving practice to reduce

its prevalence ABSTRACT Older people in hospital or other care environments are at increased risk of dehydration, which has potentially serious health consequences and can lead to

unnecessary admission to hospital and increased length of stay. This article reports on a systematic review of the literature on dehydration in older hospital patients and care home

residents; it discusses factors that increase their risk of dehydration and its potential consequences, and makes recommendations for how to improve practice to reduce prevalence. CITATION:

THOMAS M (2020) Why is dehydration a problem in older patients and care home residents? _Nursing Times_ [online]; 116: 8, 45-48. AUTHOR: Merin Thomas is clinical research nurse, the Jenner

Institute, University of Oxford. * This article has been double-blind peer reviewed * Scroll down to read the article or download a print-friendly PDF here (if the PDF fails to fully

download please try again using a different browser) INTRODUCTION On average, fluid makes up 50-65% of the body in healthy males and 45-60% in healthy females (Royal College of Nursing and

National Patient Safety Agency, 2007). Hydration plays a vital role in maintaining a range of bodily functions including cognitive function and bowel and bladder health. However, dehydration

– depletion in total body water content due to fluid losses, diminished fluid intake, or a combination of both (Begum and Johnson, 2010) – is becoming a significant factor in the

development of a range of short-term and long-term conditions (Box 1). BOX 1. HEALTH CONSEQUENCES OF DEHYDRATION IN OLDER PEOPLE * Increased mortality * Increased risk of emergency admission

to hospital or of repeated admissions * Constipation * Impaired cognitive function * Increased risk of falls * Orthostatic hypotension * Salivary dysfunction * Poor hyperglycaemic control

in diabetes * Hyperthermia Source: Hydration for Health (2012) In the UK, dehydration is a major public health concern in people aged >65 years (Health Service Ombudsman, 2011). This was

affirmed by the former chief nursing officer for England, Jane Cummings, who stressed that nutrition and hydration are fundamental aspects of nursing practice for all ages (NHS England,

2014). Although dehydration is an easily preventable condition, staff shortages and inadequate staff education can lead to dehydration-related morbidity, mortality and impaired quality of

life in institutional care settings such as hospitals, nursing homes and care homes (Begum and Johnson, 2010). This article reports the results of a literature review on dehydration in older

hospital patients and residents of nursing and care homes. It highlights the factors that increase the risk of dehydration in these groups, and makes recommendations for improving

recognition and understanding of dehydration. LITERATURE REVIEW The public inquiry into care failings at Mid Staffordshire NHS Foundation Trust found that a range of factors can lead to

dehydration in older patients (Box 2). Wilson (2014) stated that older patients have a higher probability of dehydration due to the physiological changes of ageing. Compounding this, Coe and

Williams’ (2011) concluded that, although health professionals have some awareness of the importance of hydration in clinical practice, a significant number lack knowledge of how to prevent

dehydration. BOX 2. FACTORS INCREASING THE RISK OF DEHYDRATION IN OLDER PEOPLE * Visual impairments * Inappropriate cup sizes * Impaired physical and cognitive abilities * Drinks being left

out of reach * Impaired mobility * Reluctance to drink due to fear of incontinence * Failure of care staff to take patient preferences into account * Inability of care staff to recognise

signs of dehydration * Inadequate understanding among care staff of the consequences of dehydration * Inaccurate documentation of fluid intake Sources: Gaff et al (2015); Rodrigues et al

(2015); Francis (2013); Godfrey et al (2012); Mentes (2006) To identify the relevant factors and make recommendations to improve practice, I conducted a systematic review in December 2016;

this was updated in June 2017. Eleven papers were included in the final review, which consisted of six quantitative studies (Gaff et al, 2015; Jimoh et al, 2015; Rodrigues et al, 2015; Wolff

et al, 2015; El-Sharkawy et al, 2014; Shimizu et al, 2012), one qualitative study (Godfrey et al, 2012), three mixed-method studies (Hooper et al, 2016; Vivanti et al, 2008; Mentes, 2006)

and one non-systematic review (Scherer et al, 2016). THEMATIC ANALYSIS On analysis of the papers included in the review, three main themes emerged as factors influencing the development of

dehydration in people aged >65 years in institutional care settings: * Cognitive status; * Individual preferences; * Staff awareness. COGNITIVE STATUS Four of the 11 papers (Gaff et al,

2015; Wolff et al, 2015; Godfrey et al, 2012; Mentes, 2006) identified cognitive status as a prominent risk factor for the development of dehydration. In a retrospective observational study

comparing dehydration levels in patients aged >65 years admitted to hospital from care homes with those admitted from home, Gaff et al (2015) found that those admitted from care homes

were more likely to be dehydrated on admission, particularly if they had dementia. It was found that dehydration in older patients was a result of them forgetting to drink, despite adequate

hydration being placed within reach. A higher consumption of fluids was noted in those with impaired cognition when drinks were placed directly into their hands (Gaff et al, 2015), which

suggests this group should be given additional encouragement and assistance with hydration. However, this is often difficult to achieve in institutional care settings due to inadequate

staffing levels – this could explain why hydration levels were better in patients admitted from their own homes compared with those admitted from care homes (Wolff et al, 2015; RCN, 2012).

Mentes (2006) highlighted that family involvement increased fluid intake in some hospital patients, regardless of their cognitive status. However, Godfrey et al (2012) found that relatives

of hospital patients and care home residents who were willing to help with hydration were not given sufficient guidance by staff. This is Me, a support tool developed by the Alzheimer’s

Society for carers or relatives of people with dementia to complete to facilitate person-centred care, informs nurses and care staff about patients’ and residents’ drink preferences.

INDIVIDUAL PREFERENCES Godfrey et al (2012) emphasised the issue of drinking as a pleasurable activity rather than a mere routine; they found that many patients associated fluids with

memorable events. Cue-dependent forgetting theory suggests this is due to the inability to access long-term memory stored in the hippocampus without external (environment) or internal (mood)

retrieval cues (Tulving, 1974); the act of drinking can trigger memories of pleasurable events. Reflecting on my own practice supports this finding: patients taken to the day room with

other patients for meal times consumed more fluid and food than when they were served at their bedside. It should be noted, however, that this option is not available to patients who are

confined to bed and need support to eat and drink. Gaff et al (2015) found that hot beverages were often preferred to jug water, demonstrating that providing patients or residents with a

choice could increase their fluid intake. The British Nutrition Foundation recommends offering soup and puréed fruit to maintain hydration; this may be beneficial in patients aged >65 

years, who may prefer these to water alone. STAFF EDUCATION Three of the 11 papers (Scherer et al, 2016; Jimoh et al, 2015; Godfrey et al, 2012) identified that patient fluid intake was

repeatedly: * Misreported; * Underestimated; * Inaccurately documented. This was evident in practice as staff documented fluids given _before_ patients had consumed them (Godfrey et al,

2012). Jimoh et al (2015) found that self-recording of the fluid intake by care home residents who were able to do so was more reliable. This suggests that encouraging patients and residents

to document their fluid intake if they are able to do so can enhance patient empowerment and the accuracy of fluid balance charts (NHS England, 2014). In a study of nursing home residents,

however, Mentes (2006) found that some of those who were classified as ‘able to drink’ refused to do so due to the fear of incontinence and the inability to reach the toilet in time. This is

supported by Gaff et al (2015) and Rodrigues et al (2015), who found a correlation between pain, impaired mobility and dehydration. It could be argued, therefore, that some who are

cognitively stable may exaggerate their fluid intakes if they are allowed to self-record the data. Wolff et al (2015) found that staff often provided insufficient fluids to prevent regular

toileting, while Francis (2013), reported some patients were so thirsty they were found drinking out of flower vases. This signifies the importance of staff education about adequate

hydration and the detrimental consequences of neglecting it, such as confusion, hypotension and falls (Gaff et al, 2015), which can lead to increased length of hospital stay, limit safe

discharges and increase patient dependency (El-Sharkawy et al, 2014). Shimizu et al (2012) examined the physical signs and the biochemical differences in dehydration among hospital patients

aged >65 years. They identified several signs and symptoms of dehydration, including: * Dry mouth; * Decreased skin turgor; * Increased concentration of serum sodium and osmolality in the

blood. They stated these were the best indicators of dehydration in this patient group. However, Vivanti et al (2008) demonstrated that health professionals often underestimate the

prevalence of dehydration in hospitals due to their lack of awareness of these presentations. The findings on staff awareness confirms that more educational interventions are needed to

enable staff to accurately identify and assess dehydration in older patients and care home residents. > _“Additional encouragement and assistance with hydration is often > difficult to

 achieve in institutional care settings due to > inadequate staffing levels”_ CLINICAL GUIDANCE Despite Mentes’ (2006) research on oral hydration, published 14 years ago, dehydration

among older people remains a major global public-health concern (Palmer, 2017). Many initiatives and preventive programmes have been established to reduce this problem (NHS England, 2015),

but dehydration is one of the main causes for avoidable hospital admissions in the UK and is often poorly assessed and managed by nurses (Morris et al, 2016). Guidelines for fluid intake

vary internationally; Scherer et al (2016) found that recommended fluid intake varied globally in adults and no specified guidelines were set for older people. In European countries, the

European Food Safety Authority’s (2010) guideline for fluid intake is commonly used as a standardised framework; this recommends that people aged >65 years should consume the same amount

of fluids as younger adults – namely, 2L per day for women and 2.5L for men. The UK has no national framework devised for quality standard regulators for hydration. At present, dehydration

tends to be discussed in relation to preventing constipation and enhancing palliative care; it is often overlooked and considered only when a patient deteriorates (Schub and Oji, 2016). This

may explain why many patients from care homes are dehydrated on admission to hospital, resulting in an increased length of stay and failed discharges (Cornwell et al, 2012). Clinical

guidelines do not specify treatments for dehydration but include recommendations to treat hyponatraemia (sodium <35mmol/L) and hypernatremia (sodium >150mmol/L) in clinical practice

(Queen Elizabeth Hospital Birmingham, 2016). This suggests that, although evidence-based guidance is available for assessing hyponatraemia, similar guidance is needed for assessing

dehydration (Schub and Oji, 2016). In their study, El-Sharkawy et al (2014) found that 37% of older people admitted to the emergency department were dehydrated and, of these, 62% were still

dehydrated 48 hours after admission; this highlights the lack of priority given to patient hydration in hospitals. My own clinical experience and liaising with clinical staff revealed that

local dehydration-prevention strategies involved implementing fluid-balance charts in hospitals and care homes. Shepherd (2011) stated that fluid-balance charts enable health professionals

to assess patients’ fluid intake and output to identify whether they are overhydrated or dehydrated. Smith and Roberts (2011) acknowledged that an efficient fluid-balance chart should be

quantifiable and accurately recorded. However, Jimoh et al (2015) demonstrated that staff failed to accurately document fluid-balance charts. Inaccurate charts can lead to misdiagnosis,

resulting in severely dehydrated or overhydrated patients (Bennett, 2010). This highlights the need for a service improvement tool for nurses to understand and document accurate fluid

balances. The literature demonstrates that, although dehydration is prevalent among older hospital patients and care home residents, it is also found in patients of all ages – especially in

those with physical or mental health impairments (NHS England, 2015), diabetes, pressure ulcers, urinary tract infections, incontinence, confusion and those who have had a fall (RCN and

NPSA, 2007). RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE Improving the quality of patient care is a key priority of the NHS (Health Foundation, 2013), and the framework for nursing, midwifery and care

staff aims to develop the existing preventive measures to reduce the gaps in healthcare and quality and funding efficiency (NHS England, 2016). The Nursing and Midwifery Council (2018)

emphasises that nurses should incorporate evidence-based practice to reduce mistakes and promote patient health and wellbeing. In addition, the nursing and midwifery framework, published by

NHS England in 2016, promotes the nurse’s role as a change agent and aims to empower nurses to take leadership and challenge poor practices, regardless of their clinical status (Gage, 2013).

This is in line with the RCN’s (2012) guidance, which states that quality improvement is pivotal to developing nursing practice. To effectively deliver change, it is important that a

structured framework that incorporates the managerial team, clinical staff and patients is developed to improve patient outcomes (Bowers, 2011). This systematic review revealed that staff

education is the most effective strategy for improving dehydration in older patients. This was demonstrated in studies by Wolff et al (2015) and Rodrigues et al (2015): educational

strategies that were simple, practical and easy to access reduced hospital admissions for care home residents as a result of dehydration. A useful educational package should consist of

face-to-face training for nurses using Lewin’s (1951) change management model. This requires that, before any initiative to change practice begins, those leading the change and those

implementing it must understand why it is important and how it would benefit future practice. The proposed change and its importance must, therefore, be communicated effectively with

supportive evidence-based research; any doubts and concerns should be discussed to ensure everyone involved fully understands the change. As dehydration is prevalent in patients of all ages

(NHS England, 2016), implementing the educational package in other clinical settings may be beneficial in reducing the number of emergency admissions and length of hospital stay due to

inadequate hydration. Implementing clinical audits of measuring dehydration could also promote better practice. Yorston and Wormald (2010) demonstrated that clinical audits enable staff to:

* Recognise strengths and weaknesses of current practice; * Reduce errors; * Encourage change; * Help in the delivery of evidence-based practice. As such, incorporating regular audits can

help reduce the prevalence of dehydration in hospitals and care homes. The literature review found there are no clear guidelines for recommended fluid intake in the UK for older adults.

Developing a national guideline would provide nurses with a protocol to follow to prevent dehydration in older patients in hospitals and care homes. CONCLUSION This review supports existing

literature in that dehydration is a preventable condition and can, through adequate clinical management, be improved for hospital patients and care home residents. Three dominant themes that

contribute to dehydration were: cognitive status, individual preferences and staff education. An educational package was proposed as a potential service improvement tool for nurses using

Lewin’s (1951) change management model. It is hoped this will reduce the prevalence of dehydration in patients and care home residents aged >65 years, and in patients of all ages and from

all institutions. KEY POINTS * Older people in hospital or care homes are at increased risk of dehydration * Dehydration can have serious health consequences and cause increased use of

healthcare resources * A range of physical and cognitive factors influence an individual’s risk of dehydration * Lack of awareness and understanding of dehydration and its consequences among

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